| Archive: Business: Guide Services: Helicopter Skiing: Gibbons Thesis |
|
PLACE ATTACHMENT AND GOAL ORIENTATION ON PERCEPTIONS OF GOAL INTERFERENCE AMONG BACKCOUNTRY SKIERS AND HELICOPTER SKIERS by Shannon Gibbons A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Recreation and Leisure The University of Utah June 1995 Copyright Shannon Gibbons 1995 All Rights Reserved CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the meaning and significance of the findings and to draw some conclusions about the usefulness of the study and research methodology. Finally, recommendations for further research will be made. Asymmetrical Antipathy Examination of select goal interference scores revealed that backcountry skiers perceived goal interference to exist due to the activity of helicopter skiing (Table 6). Helicopter skiers, on the other hand, reported low levels of goal interference attributed to backcountry skiing. In fact, when attributions of goal interference were made to backcountry skiers, higher levels of goal interference were reported by other backcountry skiers than were reported by helicopter skiers. These findings suggest that a one-way conflict exists. The findings are consistent with previous research supporting asymmetrical antipathy (Adelman et al., 1982; Devall & Harry, 1981; Lucas, 1964). Asymmetrical antipathy describes a conflict situation in which one group of recreationists may have a strong dislike for another group, whereas the other group is unaware of these feelings (Adelman et al., 1982). Outdoor recreation research has shown that much asymmetrical antipathy most often occurs between motorized and nonmotorized recreationists. ...the nonmotorized users have a negative attitude (an aversion) toward mechanized users and dislike meeting them in the same recreation area. Mechanized users, on the other hand, are usually either neutral toward or have a positive attitude toward nonmechanized users and do not dislike meeting them. (Adelman et al., 1982, p. 46) Jackson and Wong (1982), for example, found asymmetrical antipathy to exist among snowmobilers and cross-country skiers in Alberta, Canada. Cross-country skiers perceived snowmobilers as interfering negatively with their activity, whereas snowmobilers enjoyed or were indifferent to meeting skiers. In this case, backcountry skiers were annoyed by motorized intrusions of helicopters, whereas helicopter skiers experience little if any goal interference from backcountry skiing In previous conflict research between motorized and nonmotorized users, motorized use was a central part of the activity. Motorboating and snowmobiling are examples. In the case of helicopter skiing, however, skiing is the central part of the activity. Helicopters serve only to access remote settings. Yet, even brief encounters with the sights and sounds of helicopters or the tracked snow of one who effortlessly arrived before can create antipathy. These findings suggest that recreational activities that use even small amounts of motorized equipment are more prone to be incompatible with nonmotorized recreationists. Goal Orientation and Goal Interference Hypothesis 1 states that as goal orientation increases, goal interference will increase. For backcountry skiers, goal orientation was significantly associated with all three goal interferences. For example, backcountry skiers expressing greater nature orientation experienced greater levels of interference to experiencing nature attributed to helicopter skiing. The relationship of goal orientation and goal interference was not supported when examined in the helicopter skier population. Past studies indicate that visitors may be more prone to interferences associated with more important goals than to goals of lesser importance. One reason why goal orientation may be insignificant when analyzing the "nature" and "solitude" goal interference models is helicopter skiers tended to place less importance on these (Table 5). Although helicopter skiers placed much importance on the goal of "skiing fresh powder, they still did not perceive goal interference to exist as a result of helicopter skiing. A possible reason for this finding is helicopter skiers do not have to compete with one another for attaining the scarce resource of untracked snow. Because helicopters can provide fast and effortless access to high altitude untracked areas, plenty of powder can be found for all helicopter skiers. This study provides findings that are consistent with previous research supporting goal orientation's role in recreational conflict (Driver & Bassett, 1975; Gramann & Burdge, 1981; Jackson & Wong, 1982; Ruddell & Gramann, 1994). Differences in goal orientation have been found to exist in conflicting recreational activities. Examples of conflict concerning goal orientation include individuals seeking fulfillment of nature oriented goals being interfered with by those seeking thrill seeking or socially oriented goals. This study found that backcountry skiers place more importance on nature oriented and exercise oriented goals and attributed goal interference to helicopter skiers who were more goal oriented toward seeking excitement and developing skills. Findings in this study support the notion that differences in goal orientation exist more in intensity rather than in direction, since both groups rated most goals favorably (Ruddell, 1989). Place Dependence and Goal Interference Hypothesis 2, stating that as place dependence increases goal interference will increase, was supported but only when applied to the backcountry skier population. The relationship between place dependence and goal interference was not supported among the helicopter skiing population and was actually found to have a negative relationship with the "experiencing nature" goal (ß = -.19, p = .006). One interpretation of these findings may be that backcountry skiers may be more dependent on the central Wasatch Mountains as a place to satisfy their needs and goals. Perhaps one reason why backcountry skiers are more dependent on the area than helicopter skiers is because the majority of backcountry skiers reside in Utah (Figure 5). Perhaps place dependence was an insignificant variable among the helicopter skiing population because individuals in this group were largely nonresidents of Utah. Helicopter skiing companies are found throughout the nation, giving helicopter skiers access to many remote locations. Because of the easy access to other areas, helicopter skiers may be less dependent on the central Wasatch Mountains as a place to engage in their activity. Backcountry skiers, on the other hand, tend to live near the central Wasatch Mountains and are more dependent on the area because of its accessible location. One apparent phenomenon was the finding that helicopter skiers who were less place dependent were more likely to perceive interference with the goal to experience nature. Perhaps more place dependent helicopter skiers are unconsciously rationalizing away goal interference. These skiers may know that in order to have a quality experience, they must downplay the importance of experiencing nature due to the sights and sound intrusions that helicopters may cause. The desire to maximize personal satisfaction can result in a tendency to reevaluate the goal affected in response to a conflict (It really wasn't that important anyway)" (Jacob & Schreyer, 1980, p.370). Less place dependent helicopter skiers, on the other hand, may not be prepared for the sights and sounds of helicopters and other helicopter skiers using the same area. These intrusions may be more likely to interfere with the goal of experiencing nature among these unsuspecting helicopter skiers. Setting-Based EUH and Goal Interference Hypothesis 3 proposes that as setting-based EUH increases, goal interference will increase. Setting-based EUH was found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of goal interference among helicopter skiers. When examining skiers, however, the significance of setting-based EUH as a predictor of goal interference completely disappears. One explanation for the nonsignificance of setting-based EUH among backcountry skiers is that people with more experience have come to expect the presence of helicopter skiing in the central Wasatch Mountains. According to Jacob and Schreyer (1980), recreationists obtain more expectations through experience. If helicopter skiing hard just recently been introduced into this area, perhaps more experienced backcountry skiers would perceive goal interference by this activity. Because, however, helicopter skiing has existed in the central Wasatch Mountains for over 20 years, experienced backcountry skiers have come to accept and expect the presence of helicopter skiers. Backcountry skiers with little experience to the area do not perceive goal interference because they have fewer experiences to base their judgment on. According to Jacob and Schreyer (1980), "Occasional or novice participants possess few experiences on which to base that judgment and defer to the status quo as their standard for comparison; or they generalize their expectations so that virtually any outcome will maintain satisfaction..." (p. 372). Among the helicopter skiing population, setting-based EUH was found to be a significant variable when predicting goal interference. Helicopter skiers who have more experience using the central Wasatch Mountains as a place to helicopter ski may have more specific expectations regarding appropriate behavior that should take place in order to attain important goals. For example, in order to achieve the goal of "skiing fresh powder," more experienced helicopter skiers know that one should practice the etiquette of skiing close to other ski tracks. Less experienced helicopter skiers may not be aware of this considerate behavior and may cause goal interference among individuals with more experience when they start skiing down the middle of an untracked run. Conclusions and Research Implications Each of the study's hypotheses was supported, but to varying degrees. Thus, support was found for sources of goal interference consistent with Jacob and Schreyer’s goal interference model (1980). Goal orientation was the strongest predictor of goal interference, closely followed by place dependence, then setting based EUH. None of the variables were found to be consistent predictors of goal interference when applied to both populations. It is tempting to blame the weaker relationships among the helicopter skiing sample to the way the dependent variables were measured. Helicopter skiers were forced to make goal interference attributions to their own activity. Only this activity was applied to the goal interference model, because helicopter skiers reported no goal interference to exist because of the activity of backcountry skiing. Helicopter skiers highest goal interference mean attributed to backcountry skiing was only l.5 (on a 5-point-scale). Because no goal interference was found to be attributed to backcountry skiing, only the activity of helicopter skiing was considered to be a useful measure of goal interference. By examining possible causes of goal interference, this study supports the idea that goal orientation, place dependence and setting-based EUH are all associated with goal interference. Certain trends were then uncovered that describe recreationists who perceive goal interference to exist. Managers can use this information when determining what recreational opportunities should take place in specific areas. Federal land agencies, such as the U.S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management, provide diverse recreational opportunities through a formal land planning framework known as the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS). Using this management tool, the Wasatch-Cache National Forest has divided public lands into a number of classes from urban to primitive. It was discovered that the majority of the areas that helicopter skiing has been allowed to take place in has been classified as "semiprimitive nonmotorized." Although motorized use has been prohibited in these areas, an exception was made to allow motorized vehicle access to private companies to conduct permitted activities. According to the Wasatch-Cache National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (USDA Forest Service, 1985), a semiprimitive nonmotorized area is created to provide numerous opportunities to recreationists such as a place to experience nature and tranquillity. It was discovered, in this study, that the majority of backcountry skiers do use these areas in order to experience solitude and nature. Helicopter skiers, on the other hand, were primarily motivated to use these areas in order to ski fresh powder, to experience excitement and to improve their skiing skills. Because a semiprimitive nonmotorized area has been created to provide opportunities for visitors to experience tranquillity and to be close to nature, maybe allowing helicopter skiing to take place in these specific areas should be reevaluated. Perhaps a new management plan should be designed that changes the ROS designation of areas that helicopter skiing has been allowed to use in the past, into specific settings that allow skiers to experience excitement and thrills. Another important quality in semiprimitive nonmotorized areas is to provide a high probability of experiencing isolation from the sights and sounds of humans (USDA Forest Service, 1985). By making the exception of allowing the activity of helicopter. skiing onto these designated areas, public land agencies may be jeopardizing the experiences that winter visitors wish to gain when using these areas. Again, perhaps these semiprimitive nonmotorized areas should either be redesignated or restrictions should be placed on where helicopter skiing may take place. In any case, resource managers should be aware of the conflicting philosophies between present land management practices and the ROS management tool. Maybe the most important finding to be reported to public land managers is simply that an asymmetrical conflict exists in the central Watch Mountains. This asymmetrical relationship may have more magnitude than had been anticipated. Using this information, managers can make appropriate decisions that affect the future use of the area. Another important finding that was uncovered in this study is that backcountry skiers were found to be more dependent on the central Wasatch Mountains than were helicopter skiers. Backcountry skiers may be more dependent on the area because the central Wasatch Mountains possess unique qualities that are important to this population (i.e., excellent snow, wide variety of terrain, accessibility and scenic beauty). Previous research findings indicate that recreationists who are more attached to a particular area may be more resistant to substituting the area for a new setting. Williams et al. (1992), for example, found that recreationists with higher amounts of place attachment were less willing to substitute a particular area for another area that possessed similar site attributes. Because backcountry skiers are more dependent on the central Wasatch Mountains, it may be more difficult for them to find another area that is equally suitable for achieving their goals. Managers should become aware of the strong attachments that backcountry skiers have on the area, and keep this in mind when implementing multiple use planning and management. Managers should recognize that users do form strong attachments to the places they manage. Special consideration should be directed toward protecting these "special places" in planning processes and particular sensitivity and care be employed before making any changes that affect them. (Moore, 1991, p. 89) Conflict is a growing concern to managers of outdoor settings. Understanding the dynamics of conflict is an important step towards alleviating tensions among recreationists. The study of goal interference is just one of the complex components of recreational conflict. For this reason, conflict research deserves additional investigation beyond that reported here. Future research should focus its efforts towards further understanding the complexities of recreational conflict. Additional studies need to be done on the goal interference model to strengthen its importance in the field of recreation and leisure. Also, goat orientation, place dependence and setting-based EUH should be further tested in other conflicting recreational activities to provide further support that they are significant predictors of goat interference. In sum, goal interference is a complex concept. Examining the nature of goal interference should go beyond studying goal differences associated with differing groups and activities. One's history with a place, one's attachment to a place and the importance that one places on goals are all a part of making goal interference attributions. |